GIFT  OF 


GoO( 


GOLDEN  ROADS 


The  Good  Road  is  the  Golden  F 


LEIGH  H.  IRVINE 


Ish   Diction 

•fornia,  An 


The  National  Good  Roads  Campaign  Book.    Price  20  cents. 


GOLDEN  ROADS 

(abridged  edition) 

The  Good  Road  is  the  Golden  Road 


By 

LEIGH  H.  IRVINE 
•» 

Author   of:      The   Struggle   -for  Bread,    The   Magazine   Style-code,   A 

Cyclopedia  of  English  Diction,   The  Dictionary  of  Titles, 

A  History  of  California,  An  Affair  in  the  South  Seas, 

A  History  of  Humboldt  County,  The  Palace  of 

the  Sun,  By  Right  of  Sword  and 

other  works. 


Western  Edition  Published  by 

LEIGH  H.  IEVINE 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal. 


1916. 


Copyright, 

1916, 
By  Leigh  H.  Irvine. 


AN  EXPLANATION. 

THIS  epitome  of  the  original  work  represents 
Golden  Roads  as  it  would  be  seen  through  a 
diminishing  glass,  or  as  one  would  view  a 
landscape  by  looking  through  the  reverse  end  of  a 
telescope. 

Should  these  pages  lead  the  reader  to  desire  fur- 
ther information  on  the  subjects  treated,  I  shall  be 
glad  to  hear  from  him  with  a  view  to  supplying 
amplifications. 

In  sundry  respects  a  digest  of  a  digest,  or  an 
epitome  of  an  abridgement,  is  certain  to  prove  a 
disappointment.  Being  a  guide-post  containing 
somewhat  explicit  directions,  however,  it  may  serve 
a  useful  purpose  wherever  the  people  of  a  commun- 
ity are  earnestly  trying  to  improve  city  streets  and 
country  roads. 

The  author,  who  is  "on  the  job"  to  forward  the 
building  of  a  lateral  from  the  beautiful  beaches  of 
his  own  County  to  the  great  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
and  who  has  long  been  engaged  in  good  roads  cam- 
paigns by  tongue  and  pen,  often  "converting"  hos- 
tile audiences  to  the  cause  of  progress,  feels  that  his 
experience  in  field-work  enables  him  to  say  that 
Golden  Roads  supplies  the  very  information  the  pub- 
lic requires.  As  an  editor,  a  public  speaker,  and  an 
author,  the  writer  of  Golden  Roads  feels  that  it  is 
a  step  in  the  right  direction. 

Leigh  H.  Irvine, 
Secretary,  Chamber  of  Commerce 

and 

Secretary,  Valley  to  Coast  High- 
way Association. 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal.,  March,  1916. 
3^3577 


WHY  THIS  BOOK? 

EVERY  editor,  legislator,  public  speaker,  or  other  person  who 
advocates  the  building  of  modern  highways  to  supplant  the 
haphazard,  unimproved  roads  which  disgrace  the  larger  part 
of  every  state  in  the  Union  should  be  able  to  give  logical  reasons 
for  the  faith  that  is  in  him. 

Intelligent  readers  and  auditors,  sitting  as  jurors  who  are  to 
pass  on  tax  levies  and  bond  issues,  demand  facts.  Why  increase 
taxes?  Why  vote  bonds?  How  long  will  the  road  last?  What  is 
the  best  type  of  construction  for  our  section?  What  form  of  bond 
is  the  best?  These  and  scores  of  like  questions  can  not  be  evaded 
without  danger  to  the  good  roads  cause. 

Talking  "in  the  air"  and  writing  glittering  generalities  will 
not  make  converts  who  will  work  for  that  form  of  community  de- 
velopment which  finds  expression  in  the  construction  of  modern 
roads. 

If  improved  roads  have  helped  farmers  and  towns,  and  if  bad 
roads  have  retarded  development,  destroyed  schools,  and  made 
times  bad,  where  are  the  proofs?  Who  says  this  and  that?  and 
where  and  why  did  he  say  it?  There  should  be  a  definite  place  for 
information  of  this  character.  It  is  at  present  scattered  and  inac- 
cessible to  the  general  reader. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  writer  or  speaker  to  convince  a  doubtful 
farmer,  a  hostile  clientele,  or  an  audience  "from  Missouri"  unless 
he  can  show  them  just  what  a  modern  road  can  do  for  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  community. 

Yet  it  is  shamefully  true  that  many  willing  workers  are  un- 
able to  lay  their  hands  upon  the  very  facts  so  eagerly  desired.  The 
facts  are  hidden  in  many  scattered  volumes  and  reports. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  whenever  bond  issues  or  like 
propositions  affecting  highways  are  submitted  to  the  public  there 
is  a  demand  for  information  on  almost  every  phase  of  the  good 
roads  problem.  Where  is  this  information  to  be  found  without 
ransacking  great  libraries?  Nowhere.  This  is  the  regrettable  reply 
to  the  call  for  knowledge. 

There  should  be  a  popular  book  on  good  roads  and  why  we 
need  them.  It  should  treat  of  construction,  cost,  maintenance,  and 
similar  features;  and  it  should  emphasize  the  economic,  social,  and 
educational  benefits  of  modern  highways.  Concrete  and  convinc- 
ing examples  showing  the  value  of  good  roads  should  abound  in 
such  a  work.  It  should  be  a  book  for  the  average  voter  rather 
than  a  treatise  for  engineers. 


6  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


I  am  sorry  to  say  that  twenty-five  large  American  publishing- 
houses  have  recently  refused  to  examine  the  manuscripts  of  just 
such  a  book,  on  the  ground  that  there  is  not  sufficient  general  in- 
terest in  the  subject  to  justify  the  expenditure  of  $2,000  to  pub- 
lish the  work. 

A  number  of  wealthy  men  long  prominent  in  the  general  good 
roads  campaign,  including  General  Coleman  Du  Pont,  who  has  spent 
thousands  of  dollars  to  educate  public  sentiment,  express  grave 
doubts  whether  the  public  will  ever  study  the  good  roads  problem 
as  it  should  be  studied. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  problems  involved  in  almost  every 
page  of  the  manuscripts  referred  to  in  the  paragraph  before  the 
last  are  the  very  questions  that  are  often  referred  to  the  voters  of 
cities,  counties,  and  states  for  final  settlement  the  conclusion  of 
these  publishers  and  others  is  equivalent  to  a  charge  that  the  pub- 
lic has  not  sufficient  intelligence  for  self-government,  or  that  it  is 
too  lazy  and  indifferent  to  solve  the  fundamentals  of  the  questions 
it  is  called  upon  to  decide.  Can  this  be  true?  I  greatly  fear  there 
is  more  than  a  half-truth  in  the  charge. 

The  manuscripts  submitted  to  the  publishers  referred  to  could 
be  so  classified  and  indexed  as  to  make  an  indispensable  campaign 
book  for  everybody  interested  in  spreading  the  gospel  of  good 
roads — a  thoroughly  indexed  ready-reference  manual  of  indisputa- 
ble facts.  These  data  have  been  gathered  and  classified  by  me  dur- 
ing many  patient  hours  of  research  during  the  last  decade. 

The  manuscripts  give  the  cream  of  official  and  independent  ex- 
pert opinion.  They  really  present  in  a  nutshell  the  substance  of 
large  libraries  and  the  wisdom  of  many  men's  experience,  thereby 
constituting  a  time-  and  labor-saving  work,  pointing  to  volume  and 
page  of  almost  every  authority  on  the  subject.  The  contents  of  all 
Government  and  individual  publications  are  "boiled  down"  and  re- 
told in  plain,  simple  language.  Municipal  paving  problems  are  also 
analyzed  and  discussed;  yet  I  have  had  to  abandon  all  thought  of 
publishing  the  work  unless  I  desire  to  bear  the  entire  financial  risk 
myself,  and  this  I  decline  to  do. 

Under  these  circumstances  I  have  here  curtailed  the  larger 
work,  and  Golden  Roads  (abridged)  is  the  offering  now  before  you. 
It  is  greatly  emasculated  and  somewhat  fragmentary,  but  its  cita- 
tions and  bibliographical  features  alone  should  serve  a  useful  pur- 
pose in  guiding  investigators  in  their  search  for  accurate  data.  I 
have  eliminated  ninety  per  cent  of  the  original  work. 


Where  To  Get  Knowledge. 

Almost  all  the  valuable  and  trustworthy  information  obtain- 
able about  American  good  roads  has  been  gathered  and  published 
during  the  last  twenty-two  years,  under  the  direction  of  the  old 
Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries  and  the  present  Office  of  Public 
Roads.  This  work  was  first  undertaken  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment in  1893,  since  which  time  it  has  been  greatly  extended,  as 
appropriations  by  the  Government  have  been  increased.  The  Year- 
Books  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  large  bound  volumes  is- 
sued annually,  abound  in  valuable  information  on  the  subject  of 
good  roads.  But 

So  far  as  the  average  editor,  commercial  secretary,  supervisor, 
or  general  reader  is  concerned  this  storehouse  of  valuable  informa- 
tion— drawn  from  the  practical  and  often  expensive  experiments  and 
experiences  of  thousands  of  engineers  and  chemists,  hundreds  of 
communities  and  states — lies  almost  hopelessly  buried  in  twenty- 
three  gigantic  volumes,  hundreds  of  elaborate  special  articles, 
speeches,  circulars,  and  scores  of  valuable  bulletins  compiled  by 
experts  and  published  by  the  Federal  Government  or  in  books  and 
magazines. 

Many  of  these  priceless  documents  have  long  been  out  of  print, 
and  many  can  scarcely  be  found,  even  in  the  largest  public  libraries 
in  the  United  States. 

But  if  all  these  rare  and  scattered  works  were  arranged  in 
good  order  before  the  individual  investigator — about  400  separate 
articles,  volumes,  and  documents — he  could  not  read  them  in  less 
than  300  working  days  of  eight  hours  each.  It  would  then  require 
months  to  classify  and  index  the  contents  of  the  library  he  had 
read. 

But  after  the  student  had  finished  this  task,  there  would  yet 
remain  for  careful  consideration  dozens  of  important  private  con- 
tributions to  the  subject  of  good  roads — books  by  masters,  reports 
of  conventions,  an  account  of  experiments,  and  synopses  of  valua- 
ble discussions. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  the  appalling  character  of  the  task  thus  out- 
lined, the  fact  remains  that  every  writer  and  speaker,  every  intelli- 
gent advocate  of  good  roads  simply  must  obtain  his  information 
from  these  very  inaccessible  Government  reports  and  able  treatises 
by  individuals,  or  from  some  book,  speech,  or  person  whose  in- 
formation came  from  Uncle  Sam's  great  printing-house.  In  study- 
ing all  these  data  and  conclusions  one  is  impressed  that  they  are 
the  indispensable  foundations  of  all  the  learning  extant  on  the 
subject  of  good  roads. 


8  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


Not  one  voter  in  50,000  has  access  to  these  Government  re- 
ports, few  know  of  their  existence,  or  where  to  find  them,  and 
fewer  yet  have  either  the  time,  patience,  or  inclination  to  read  and 
analyze  them,  even  though  the  volumes  really  give  clear  answers  to 
almost  every  puzzling  problem  and  question  that  the  oldest  Silurian, 
the  closest  Timothy  Tightwad,  the  most  patriotic  board  of  super- 
visors, or  the  most  progressive  commercial  secretary  might  pro- 
pound. 

It  is  evident  that  the  information  contained  in  these  volumes 
should  be  freely  circulated  among  taxpayers,  students,  readers, 
voters,  and  thinkers;  it  is  exactly  the  knowledge  that  every  pro- 
gressive community  should  have  at  hand  "in  black  and  white." 

Engineering,  chemical,  and  practical  traffic  experience  from 
hundreds  of  sources  should  interest  voters  in  every  community 
contemplating  road  improvements. 

The  Government  publications  and  individual  engineers'  re- 
ports and  books  are  not  in  any  sense  theoretical  discussions,  but 
records  of  achievement,  a  report  on  the  harvest  gathered  from  the 
abundant  experience  of  the  builders.  Their  discussions  run  all  the 
way  from  convict  labor  to  curves,  grades,  wearing  surfaces,  and 
the  mathematical  problems  connected  with  taxes,  bonding,  and  cost- 
accounting.  They  cover  the  entire  field,  dodging  none  of  the  fun- 
damental questions  asked  by  voters  and  investors,  residents,  tax- 
payers, and  tourists.  The  entire  record  is  really  a  faithful  digest, 
abridgment,  or  "boiled  down"  exhibit  of  facts.  Theories  are  dis- 
carded almost  entirely.  In  their  illuminating  pages  the  reader 
beholds  the  lessons  and  profits  by  the  wisdom  acquired  by  Govern- 
ment chemists,  engineers,  accountants,  and  experts  in  almost  every 
phase  of  swamp,  mountain,  valley,  and  city  road  building,  road 
bonding,  and  road  maintenance.  Sand-clay  roads,  earthen  or  'dirt' 
roads,  water-bound  macadam,  oil-bound  macadam,  bituminous  sur- 
faces, brick,  and  concrete — all  these  and  other  questions  come  under 
careful  review  and  analysis  by  the  masters. 

Confidence  in  conclusions  is  established  when  every  statement, 
experiment,  law,  and  fact  sighted  is  based  on  a  careful  analysis  of 
an  accredited  speech,  report,  bill,  laboratory  test,  or  book  bearing 
official  or  academic  sanction. 

With  the  extension  of  automobile  traffic,  the  building  of  resorts 
in  the  scenic  belts  of  many  states,  and  the  general  growth  of  agri- 
culture and  commerce  the  demand  for  modern  roads  is  destined  to 
become  more  intense  each  year.  The  age  demands  such  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  will  enable  it  fitly  to  receive  and 
accommodate  that  vehicle  which  the  civilization  of  the  era  furnishes 
— which  is  one  definition  of  a  good  road,  contributed  by  Colonel 
W.  H.  Ashby. 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.    9 


The  Government  expert  and  the  field-worker  in  good  roads 
campaigns  are  familiar  with  persons  whose  pocket-book  nerves 
ache  violently  whenever  bonds  and  taxes  are  proposed.  They  also 
know  the  tribe  of  vanishing  mossbacks  who  say  "the  roads  that 
daddy  traveled  are  good  enough  for  me."  They  also  meet  the 
woman  voter  who  often  gropes  vainly  for  light  on  the  many  puz- 
zling problems  of  bonds,  taxes,  and  upkeep.  Therefore  the  books 
and  bulletins  cited  in  the  pages  that  follow  point  the  way  to  vital 
information;  for  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  present  author  to  give 
the  reader  abundant  citations  from  his  own  unpublished  manu- 
scripts and  from  volumes  to  be  found  in  great  libraries  throughout 
the  United  States. 

WHERE  TO  GET  INFORMATION.  If  you  want  any  of  the 
circulars  or  bulletins  cited  in  this  work,  address  the  Superintendent 
of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  detailed  information  con- 
cerning cost.  Some  of  the  Government  publications  are  now  out 
of  print.  Y.B.  means  YEAR-BOOK. 

BENEFITS  OF  IMPROVED  ROADS.  Get  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  505,  Sept.  26,  1912.  In  ten  thousand  words  it  shows  the  main 
benefits  of  modern  roads.  It  treats  of  economic  and  social  advan- 
tages, decrease  in  the  cost  of  hauling,  relation  of  roads  to  agricul- 
tural conditions,  increase  in  the  value  of  farm  lands,  increase  of 
tourist  travel,  improvement  of  schools,  churches,  rural  mail  delivery, 
etc.  Eight  convincing  photographic  illustrations  of  improved  and 
unimproved  roads  drive  the  argument  home.  Time  reduction  in 
transportation  is  shown  to  be  equivalent  to  a  decrease  of  distance 
from  market  centers.  Grades,  curves,  surfaces,  etc.,  are  considered 
as  affecting  horsepower,  farmers'  profits,  and  increase  of  popula- 
tion. Interesting  tables  are  submitted.  The  average  cost  of  haul- 
ing per  ton-mile  on  unimproved  roads  is  22.7  cents,  but  the  cost 
on  a  modern  road  is  less  than  13  cents.  Sullivan  County,  Tenn., 
Crosby,  Texas,  Jonesville,  Va.,  and  other  examples  of  the  revolu- 
tion wrought  by  good  roads  are  cited.  Wear  and  tear  on  vehicles, 
harness,  horses,  need  of  extra  equipment,  interest  charges,  etc., 
are  considered.  Bad  roads  tie  up  crops  which  might  otherwise  be 
moved  to  a  favorable  market.  Bad  roads  often  block  the  farmer  so 
he  can  not  move  his  crops  when  prices  are  highest.  Increase  in 
land  values  is  fully  analyzed.  How  values  increased  with  good 
roads  in  Jackson  County,  Ala.  Reports  from  the  Denver  Chamber 
of  Commerce  on  the  $3,000,000  annually  spent  by  automobilists 
lured  by  good  roads.  Facts  about  improved  school  facilities  are 
convincing. 

The  distance  from  Dandridge  to  Jefferson,  Tenn.,  is  10  miles. 
Two  horses  could  pull  only  20  bushels  of  wheat  over  the  road.  The 
round  trip  consumed  a  day,  making  the  cost  of  transportation 
(under  very  low  wages  for  man  and  team)  15  cents  a  bushel.  A 


10  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


development  league  won  a  good  roads  campaign  and  completed  the 
highway.  Result:  The  load  was  increased  to  50  bushels,  the  time 
was  reduced  a  third,  and  the  cost  of  transportation  was  cut  to  4 
cents  a  bushel. 

Near  Crosby,  Texas,  two  large  mules  were  required  to  haul  4 
thousand  pounds  of  wire  over  3  miles  of  improved  road.  The  haul 
consumed  two  hours.  But  the  wire  was  destined  for  a  place  one 
mile  beyond  the  end  of  the  improved  road.  It  was  necessary  to 
throw  off  3  of  the  4  thousand  pounds  of  wire,  and  make  three 
trips  with  four  mules  hauling  ONE  thousand  pounds  to  the  load. 
This  required  12  hours. 

Answers  from  2,800  county  correspondents  showed  that  im- 
proved roads  enable  a  team  to  haul  from  three  to  five  times  the 
load  and  cover  from  three  to  five  times  the  radius  or  distance  dur- 
ing a  given  time,  also  that  improved  roads  are  never  impassable. 
Economic  and  social  rewards  come  by  improving  the  surface  of  the 
highway,  shortening  the  length,  and  reducing  the  grade.  Every 
county  should  make  a  traffic  census  in  connection  with  its  road 
surveys,  so  as  first  to  arrive  at  the  cost  of  transportation  per  ton- 
mile  and  the  probabilities  of  time  reduction.  In  hundreds  of 
instances  the  Government  experts  have  found  that  the  cost  of 
transportation  has  been  reduced  an  average  of  5  cents  per  ton-mile. 
To  illustrate:  Where  the  wheat  production  was  30  bushels  an  acre 
there  resulted  for  an  average  haul  of  five  miles  an  economic  advan- 
tage of  22%  cents  an  acre,  or  $36  a  quarter  section,  which  is  4 
per  cent  on  $900.  In  view  of  these  facts  every  community  thus 
benefited  was  prudent  to  borrow  up  to  $2,000  per  square  mile  of 
the  wheat  area  within  the  belt  receiving  the  reduction  of  5  cents 
per  ton-mile.  In  addition  to  the  reduction  per  ton-mile,  these 
additional  benefits  result  from  good  roads:  Reduction  of  the  wear 
and  tear  on  men,  animals,  vehicles,  and  harness;  a  reduction  of  the 
investment  in  horses  and  vehicles;  a  gain  in  tourist  traffic,  social, 
and  business  advantages;  increased  convenience  and  a  saving  of 
time,  reduction  in  freight  rates  and  the  cost  of  living.  Good  roads 
also  give  the  assessor  more  property  from  which  to  gather  the 
taxes  necessary  to  make  community  life  more  desirable  in  town  and 
country.  Experts  report  that  the  average  increase  in  land  values 
by  reason  of  good  roads  is  from  25  to  50  per  cent.  The  money  put 
into  roads  returns  to  the  farm  or  the  village  lot  with  compound 
interest  in  the  form  of  increased  values. 

SELECTING  THE  ROAD.  Oil  macadam,  water-bound  macadam, 
earth,  sand-clay,  gravel,  brick,  granite  blocks,  wood,  unsurfaced 
concrete,  and  questions  pertaining  to  them  are  discussed  by  George 
W.  Tillson,  one  of  the  ablest  living  highway  engineers,  in  a  paper 
read  at  the  International  Good  Roads  Convention  at  Toronto,  Can., 
March  22,  1915. 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  11 


INITIAIr     COST,     REPAIR,     MAINTENANCE.       Good     Roads 

(magazine),  April  3,  1915,  quotes  Tillson  and  J.  C.  Pennybacker, 
chief  of  road  economics,  U.  S.  Office  of  Public  Roads — 34,000  miles 
of  improved  roads  built  in  U.  S.  in  1913-14.  See  Good  Roads  Bul- 
letin No.  48  on  maintenance  and  repair.  It  is  a  mine  of  informa- 
tion. "A  continuously  maintained  road  seldom  needs  repair,  but 
a  properly  repaired  road  always  needs  maintenance."  The  subject 
is  elaborately  treated. 

COST  OF  MACADAM  ROADS.  Agricultural  Bulletin  No.  136 
gives  average  costs  from  104  New  England  points  from  1908  to 
1911,  with  figures  on  drainage,  grading,  surfacing. 

BONDS  AND  MAINTENANCE.  This  subject  is  elaborately 
treated  by  J.  E.  Pennybacker  in  a  paper  read  at  the  Fourth  Ameri- 
can Road  Congress,  Atlanta,  Nov.  9,  1914.  See  also  Agricultural 
Bulletin  No.  136,  Feb.  1915.  This  publication  is  exhaustive  and 
invaluable.  It  covers  the  field  thoroughly  and  presents  valuable 
tables  and  data  on  the  elements  of  cost  in  road  construction  and 
bond  calculations.  In  1,230  counties  in  the  U.  S.  (41.1  per  cent 
of  the  total)  there  were  outstanding  highway  bonds  Jan.  1,  1914. 
They  amounted  to  $286,557,073.  The  paper  shows  that  transpor- 
tation per  ton-mile  on  a  poor  road  costs  from  20  to  35  cents. 
Tonnage  is  computed  by  actual  count,  or  by  determining  traffic 
areas,  supplemented  by  estimates  of  tonnage.  The  Government 
finds  that  when  an  unimproved  market  road  is  improved  hauling 
costs  are  reduced  from  2  to  10  cents  per  ton-mile.  It  is  found  that 
the  annual  saving  per  mile  in  hauling  costs  at  5  cents  per  ton-mile 
reduction  amounts  to  a  tremendous  sum  during  a  year  on  a 
road  actively  used.  Serial,  annuity,  and  sinking-fund  bonds  are  ana- 
lyzed and  fully  discussed.  The  bulletin  discusses  every  phase  of 
cost  and  maintenance  with  a  view  to  guiding  communities  in  their 
investments.  Speakers  and  writers  who  may  be  confronted  by 
hostile  audiences  and  readers  should  have  this  bulletin  at  hand. 

COST  OF  BAD  ROADS.  In  Y.  B.  1897,  p.  175,  Director  Stone 
ably  discusses  good  and  bad  roads.  Why  should  the  farmer  raise 
a  surplus  at  all  if  impassable  roads  bar  him  from  the  markets? 
The  cost  of  bad  roads  exceeds  each  year  the  total  expenditures  of 
the  Federal  Government.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York 
reports  that  this  country  is  handicapped  in  world-markets  by  waste 
labor  and  bad  roads.  The  loss  from  bad  roads  is  equal  to  one- 
fourth  the  home  value  of  American  farm  products.  Perishable 
crops  can  not  be  grown,  or  if  grown  they  are  lost.  Enforced  idle- 
ness of  men  and  horses  is  a  source  of  impoverishment. 

HOW  BAD  ROADS  CAME.  Y.  B.  1899,  p.  367.  Acting  Direc- 
tor Maurice  O.  Eldridge,  of  the  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries, 
shows  that  the  Colonists  who  first  settled  America  brought  to  us 
the  English  road-building  methods  of  the  Dark  Ages.  The  Britons 


12  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


neglected  the  superb  roads  made  by  the  Romans,  so  that  narrow 
highways  obtained.  He  shows  the  long  neglect  of  roads  in  America 
and  gives  interesting  glimpses  of  our  crude  past.  This  article 
presents  a  splendid  review  of  the  progress  of  the  good  roads  cam- 
paign and  an  account  of  achievements  in  early  days,  also  during 
recent  years  in  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New 
York,  California,  and  other  states. 

EARLY  AMERICAN  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1899,  p.  654.  Angus  Sin- 
clair shows  that  during  the  Colonial  period  of  American  history 
there  was  not  enough  State  or  National  feeling  to  induce  the  people 
to  join  their  energies  in  improving  roads  and  waterways.  This 
article  sheds  light  on  the  development  of  roads  after  the  war  of 
1812.  The  invention  of  the  steamboat  stimulated  inland  commerce, 
canal,  and  road  building. 

MOUNTAIN  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1900,  p.  183.  This  article  is  by 
James  W.  Abbott,  special  agent  of  the  Office  of  Good  Road  In- 
quiries. Mr.  Abbott,  who  had  spent  twenty-five  years  in  building 
mountain  roads,  concludes  that  the  key  to  all  correct  methods  of 
mountain  road  building  is  grade.  He  discusses  the  maximum  grade 
permissible,  loads,  brakes,  location,  avalanches,  location  of  slopes, 
curves,  and  like  questions. 

WORK  OF  DEPARTMENT.  Y.  B.  1900,  p.  53.  Efforts  to  ob- 
tain and  diffuse  information  are  described.  Good-roads  organiza- 
tions of  thiny-eight  states,  represented  in  a  convention  at  Chicago 
(page  54),  asked  Congress  to  allow  $150,000  a  year  to  the  Depart- 
ment. Co-operation  in  general  is  commended,  especially  the  aid  of 
large  transportation  companies,  which  have  carried  men  and  ma- 
chinery free.  The  scope  of  Federal  aid  is  discussed  and  general 
interest  in  good  roads  is  noted. 

FARMERS  SLOW  TO  ORGANIZE.  Doctor  T.  N.  Carver,  a 
Harvard  University  professor  of  economics,  whose  services  were 
engaged  in  1914  to  organize  farmers  for  the  purpose  of  forwarding 
rural  development,  concluded  that  "farmers  are  temperamentally 
an  independent,  headstrong,  individualistic  class,  and  therefore 
difficult  to  organize."  He  found  that  farmers  lose  $300,000,000  a 
year  by  bad  roads.  Good  roads  are  necessary  in  the  advantageous 
production  and  distribution  of  farm  products. 

MATERIAL  FOR  MACADAM  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1900,  p.  349. 
An  interesting  and  exceedingly  valuable  article  on  this  subject  is 
presented  by  Logan  Waller  Page,  expert  in  charge  of  the  road 
material  laboratory  in  the  division  of  chemistry.  No  one  rock  can 
be  called  universally  excellent  road  material.  Climate,  volume  and 
kind  of  traffice  require  changes  of  the  material  to  suit  requirements. 
Farmers  and  owners  of  automobiles  demand  high  class  roads. 
Cheapness  and  convenience  of  location  usually  determine  the  char- 
acter of  the  road  material  selected.  A  road  either  too  soft  or  too 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  13 


hard  for  the  traffic  involves  the  maintenance  department  in  diffi- 
culties. Consider  frost,  wind,  rain,  horses,  and  vehicles.  Some 
hard  rocks  are  brittle.  A  tough,  fairly  hard  rock  is  better. 

BUBAL  DELIVEBY.     Y.  B.  1900,  p.  526.     The  importance  of 
good  roads  for  rural  delivery  is  discussed. 

CONVICT  LABOB.  Y.  B.  1901,  p.  318.  This  is  a  special 
article  by  J.  A.  Holmes,  of  the  Department.  He  discusses  reparation 
of  injuries  to  society  by  service  on  roads,  where  the  cost  of  the 
convict's  "keep"  is  often  less  than  in  jails  and  penitentiaries. 
Their  work  on  roads  is  shown  not  to  interfere  with  free  labor,  if 
their  energies  are  used  where,  but  for  their  services,  no  roads 
would  be  constructed. 

OBJECT-LESSON  BO  ADS.  Y.  B.  1901,  p.  100,  tells  of  the 
excellent  results  that  have  come  from  the  building  of  object-lesson 
roads  by  the  Government. 

TENNESSEE  BOADS.  Y.  B.  1904,  p.  323.  An  article  by 
Sam  C.  Lancaster,  of  the  Department,  shows  cost,  construction,  and 
maintenance  of  a  first-class  stone  road  in  Madison  County,  Tenn. 
The  streets  of  Jackson  were  disgracefully  muddy,  so  the  citizens 
decided  to  improve  them.  After  they  had  made  a  good  start  the 
desire  to  improve  the  roads  of  the  County  became  general.  The 
Young  Men's  Commercial  Club  called  for  Federal  advice  on  good 
roads  in  1893.  A  good  stone  road  was  built  and  the  cost  of  repair 
proved  to  be  $33  per  mile  per  annum.  In  1901  a  good  roads  con- 
vention resulted;  in  1903  there  was  a  mass  meeting,  called  as  a 
result  of  a  Government  object-lesson  road.  The  winter  of  1902-03 
was  one  of  great  mud.  Two  big  mules  could  travel  only  a  few  miles 
in  a  day,  with  two  milk  cans  for  a  load.  For  six  weeks  farmers 
were  hemmed  in;  business  was  blocked.  At  the  convention  all 
wanted  good  roads,  but  there  were  dissensions  about  methods. 
Some  wanted  taxes,  others  bonds.  There  was  dissension  until  a 
farmer  arose  and  said:  "I'm  just  a  plain  farmer***  covered  with 
mud.  I  walked  to  this  meeting  because  my  horse  couldn't  travel 
the  roads.  I  bought  some  groceries  from  you  (turning  to  a  mer- 
chant) this  month;  yes,  $5  worth,  for  I  carried  them  on  my  back. 
With  a  good  road  it  would  have  been  $25."  A  laugh  went  round  and 
a  $300,OOO  bond  issue  was  authorized,  bearing  4  per  cent,  running 
twenty  years.  Work  began  in  January,  1903. 

EXPEBT  ADVICE.  Y.  B.  1905,  p.  105  sets  forth  that  wher- 
ever (in  the  U.  S.)  "there  is  any  question  as  to  what  road  material 
is  best  suited  for  the  local  conditions,  samples  of  all  the  available 
materials  may  be  sent  to  the  laboratory  of  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads,  where  tests"  of  material  will  be  made.  An  engineer  will  be 
detailed  to  make  the  investigation  and  give  advice.  If  necessary, 
the  Department  will  supplement  this  advice  with  a  practical  demon- 
stration of  object-lesson  road  building.  Engineers,  foremen,  and 


14  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


machinery  operatives  are  supplied  by  the  Government,  and  local 
officials  are  taught  by  actual  demonstration  every  step  in  the  proper 
construction  of  the  road.  The  local  community  must  furnish  rights 
of  way,  common  labor,  teams,  and  materials.  At  the  time  of  this 
report  28  states  had  availed  themselves  of  this  branch  of  the  serv- 
ice. If  there  is  a  highway  commission  or  other  body  of  engineers 
having  charge  of  state  roads  the  Federal  Department  declines  to 
extend  this  service  to  a  county  without  the  request,  consent,  or 
approval  of  the  state  highway  board  or  commission. 

OFFICE  OF  PUBLIC  ROADS,  WHAT  IT  DOES.  Y.  B.  1905, 
p.  567.  The  Office  of  Public  Roads  collects  and  disseminates  infor- 
mation concerning  systems  of  road  management  throughout  the 
United  states;  conducts  investigations  and  experiments  concern- 
ing road-building  materials,  and  methods  of  road  construction; 
makes  chemical  and  physical  tests  of  road  materials  and  materials 
of  construction  relating  to  agriculture;  gives  expert  advice  on  road 
administration  and  road  construction,  and  demonstrates  the  best 
methods  of  construction,  also  prepares  publications  on  these  sub- 
jects. 

EXPERIMENTAL  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1910,  p.  151.  In  this  por- 
tion of  the  Secretary's  report  it  is  remarked  that  the  principle  of 
localization  is  breaking  up  in  road  building,  and  centralized  meth- 
ods are  coming  in.  The  subject  of  administration,  construction,  and 
maintenance  is  going  through  a  period  of  vital  change  in  every 
state.  In  this  the  educational  and  scientific  work  of  the  Govern- 
ment should  prove  of  great  value. 

PROGRESS  IN  GOOD  ROADS  WORK.  Y.  B.  1910,  p.  265,  an 
article  by  Logan  Waller  Page,  who  gives  an  elaborate  history  of 
road-building  in  Virginia  in  1632;  Maryland,  1666;  South  Carolina, 
1730;  Massachusetts,  1653.  Facts  concerning  Kentucky,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  other  states  are  presented.  The  Civil  War  almost 
stopped  road  building,  and  the  Federal  Government  ceased  partici- 
pation in  road  work;  turnpike  companies  failed,  and  states  paid 
no  attention  to  roads.  But  in  1904  there  were  2,151,000  miles  of 
roads  in  the  United  States  of  which  only  7.14  per  cent  were  im- 
proved. Reaction  against  ancient  and  inefficient  methods  began  in 
New  Jersey  in  1881,  followed  by  Massachusetts  in  1892;  Connec- 
ticut, 1895;  New  York,  1898,  etc.  The  article  is  worth  careful 
study. 

USE  OF  BITUMENS.  Y.  B.  1910,  p.  297.  Article  by  Prevost 
Hubbard,  chemist  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads.  He  concludes  that 
bitumens  are  the  most  important  class  of  material  employed  as 
dust  preventives  and  road  binders. 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM.  Y.  B.  1911,  p.  144. 
Secretary  Wilson,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  reports  that 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  15 


changes  in  road  methods  have  been  forced  upon  the  public  by  rap- 
idly changing  traffic  conditions.  Scientific  and  educational  work 
is  doing  wonders.  During  the  last  fiscal  year  object-lesson  roads 
were  built  in  52  places,  at  a  cost  of  $120,000  by  local  authorities. 
The  article  gives  many  interesting  facts  regarding  materials,  re- 
sults, and  the  work  of  the  Department. 

GROWTH  OF  OFFICE.  Y.  B.  1912,  p.  207.  During  16  years, 
to  1912  inclusive,  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  has  grown  from  a  small 
organization  with  an  annual  appropriation  of  $8,000  employing 
7  persons  to  a  thoroughly  developed  organization  with  165  em- 
ployees and  an  annual  appropriation  of  $202,120. 

RURAL  BETTERMENT  PROBLEMS.  Y.  B.  1913,  p.  37.  Sec- 
retary Houston's  report  says:  "Good  roads  are  prerequisite  for  bet- 
ter marketing,  for  better  schools,  and  for  more  comfortable  rural 
living."  On  p.  51  he  says:  "There  has  been  a  steady  movement  for 
better  roads  during  the  last  20  years,  with  the  result  that  to-day 
about  24  states  have  highway  commissions  or  some  other  State  high- 
way agency.  A  few  of  these  are  engaged  in  educational  work,  but 
most  of  them  are  expending  state  money  in  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  roads.  So  rapid  has  been  the  growth  of  this  work 
that,  while  the  total  annual  expenditure  of  the  states  for  this  pur- 
pose amounted  to  but  $2,000,000  10  years  ago,  it  had  grown  to 
$43,000,000  in  1912." 

IDEAL  ROCK  FOR  ROADS.  In  bulletin  No.  44  of  the  Office 
of  Public  Roads  it  is  said  that  the  ideal  rock  for  a  macadam  road 
is  one  which  resists  traffic  wear  to  such  an  extent  as  to  supply 
enough  binding  material  to  cement  the  road.  If  there  is  not  suffi- 
cient traffic  to  wear  off  the  requisite  amount  of  binder  to  replace 
that  carried  away  by  wind  and  rain,  the  road  ravels.  If  too  much 
fine  material  wears  away,  the  road  becomes  either  muddy  or  dusty. 
A  softer  rock  should  be  used  in  the  first  case,  a  harder  one  in  the 
second.  A  hard,  tough  rock  is  required  for  a  road  subjected  to 
heavy  traffic.  A  lightly  travelled  road,  or  a  road  for  automobile 
traffic,  needs  softer  material,  with  high  cementing  value.  Auto- 
mobiles play  havoc  with  tough  rock  macadam,  for  they  do  not  wear 
off  enough  binding  material.  No  synopsis  can  do  justice  to  this 
excellent  Bulletin,  which  abounds  in  tables  showing  the  results 
of  both  field  and  laboratory  experience. 

COUNTRY  DEMANDS  ROAD  KNOWLEDGE.  Y.  B.  1906,  p. 
112.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  steadily  growing  demand  throughout  the  country  for  ex- 
pert information  as  to  the  best  methods  of  road  construction. 

OBJECT-LESSON  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1906,  p.  137.  This  is  an 
excellent  special  article  by  Director  Page,  of  the  Department.  He 
says  information  shows  that  counties  and  states  are  spending  ap- 
proximately $70,000,000  annually  for  road  building.  Until  recent 


16  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


years  highway  engineering  has  received  slight  attention  in  the  engi- 
neering schools  of  the  country,  for  which  reason  properly  equipped 
men  have  not  been  equal  to  the  demand.  With  about  2,300,000 
miles  of  rural  highways  in  the  United  States,  the  necessity  of  plac- 
ing road  construction  and  administration  on  a  correct  basis  may 
be  realized. 

Progress  in  road  building  has  usually  followed  the  construction 
of  object-lesson  roads.  At  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  in  1899  such  a  road 
resulted  in  a  bond  issue,  at  first  bitterly  fought,  of  $186,000.  They 
sold  for  $210,000.  After  the  roads  were  improved,  lands  advanced 
from  $8  to  $10  per  acre  to  $15  and  $30  per  acre.  In  Madison 
County,  Tenn.,  the  object-lesson  road  resulted  in  the  building  of  50 
miles  of  first-class  macadam  roads.  At  Pensacola,  Fla.,  the  result 
was  the  raising  of  $450,000  for  a  good  roads  system.  At  Gaines- 
ville, Fla.,  tremendous  advances  in  road  building  resulted.  At 
Uniontown,  Ala.,  the  city  spent  $25,000  on  streets  after  studying 
the  government  methods  as  shown  in  an  object-lesson  road.  At 
Auburn,  Neb.,  it  is  conceded  that  the  object-lesson  roads  resulted 
in  building  the  best  roads  in  Nebraska. 

WORK  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  PUBLIC  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1907, 
p.  131.  The  close  of  the  year  marked  the  completion  of  the  first 
census  ever  made  to  determine  the  road  mileage,  revenue,  and  ex- 
penditures in  the  United  States.  The  investigation  was  begun  early 
in  1905,  but  information  covering  1904  was  obtained  from  corre- 
spondents in  every  county  in  the  United  States,  from  city  officials, 
and  others,  including  newspapers  and  agricultural  associations.  A 
Bulletin  recently  issued  shows  the  enormous  total  of  nearly  2,152,- 
000  miles  of  public  roads;  that  7.14  of  the  mileage  has  been  im- 
proved, and  that  the  total  expenditure  for  1904  was  about  $80,000,- 
000.  The  Secretary  concludes  that  the  results  obtained  are  totally 
inadequate  to  the  amount  of  money  expended. 

MODEL  COUNTY  SYSTEMS.  Y.  B.  1907,  p.  135.  The  Sec- 
retary concludes  that  the  roads  of  a  county  should  be  built  accord- 
Ing  to  a  predetermined  and  unified  system,  based  upon  a  careful 
investigation  of  materials,  amount  of  traffic,  revenue  available, 
methods  of  construction  adapted  to  local  needs,  organization  and 
administration,  and  all  factors  entering  directly  or  indirectly  into 
the  road  work.  Exhaustive  and  detailed  reports  were  submitted 
to  many  counties  with  plans,  estimates,  and  recommendations  in- 
dicating the  locations  of  all  materials,  advising  which  should  be 
used,  indicating  the  roads  that  should  be  improved  and  the  method 
and  cost  of  improvement  suggested,  needed  changes  in  organiza- 
tion and  methods  of  administration,  affording  a  guide  for  future 
county  roacl  work.  The  first  assignment  was  made  at  Santa  Bar- 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  17 


bara,  Cal.,  followed  by  work  of  similar  character  in  Los  Angeles, 

which  proceeded  under  recommendations  made  by  the  engineer  of 
the  Federal  Road  Department. 

ROADS  AND  AGRICULTURE.  Y.  B.  1908,  p.  144.  The  total 
expenditure  upon  improved  roads  in  1908  is  estimated  by  the  Sec- 
retary. Taking  the  1904  figures  as  a  basis,  and  assuming  that 
macadam  roads  have  increased  12.5  per  cent,  the  gravel  15  per  cent 
and  those  surfaced  with  special  materials  25  per  cent,  we  have 
43,450  miles  of  the  macadam,  124,468,  of  gravel,  and  8,512  sur- 
faced with  special  materials.  The  cost  of  the  macadam  has  been 
estimated  at  $4,500  per  mile,  of  the  gravel  at  $1,500,  and  of  other 
surfacing  materials  at  $1,000.  There  is  about  1,975,000  miles  of 
earth  road  which  has  cost  for  grading,  culverts,  bridges,  and  all 
other  items  an  average  of  $500  per  mile.  The  right  of  way,  esti- 
mated at  40  feet  in  width,  is  worth  $342,000,000,  making  a  total 
estimated  cost  of  $1,720,339,000  for  all  the  roads  of  this  country. 
Over  these  roads  250,000  tons  of  freight  are  hauled  every  year  to  rail- 
roads, not  including  the  great  tonnage  hauled  to  wharves  for  water 
shipment,  which  the  department  can  not  estimate.  The  hauling  is 
done  at  an  average  cost  of  23  cents  per  ton-mile,  and  the  average 
haul  is  9  miles — an  annual  cost  of  more  than  half  a  billion  dol- 
lars. The  selling  price  of  farm  products  is  largely  determined  by 
factors  beyond  the  control  of  the  farmer.  His  prosperity  must  be 
measured  by  the  margin  of  profit  above  the  cost  of  production  and 
transportation;  and  it  is  only  when  the  great  agricultural  popula- 
tion realizes  that  the  road  problem  is  a  farm  problem  that  we  can 
look  for  substantial  progress  in  this  important  branch  of  trans- 
portation. See  p.  145. 

EFFECT  OF  EDUCATION.  Y.  B.  1908,  p.  145.  It  is  well 
known  that  in  four  states  where  the  average  percentage  of  im- 
proved roads  is  30.55  the  percentage  of  white  illiterates  is  only 
0.34  of  1  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  and  in  four  states  in 
which  only  1.51  of  the  road  mileage  is  improved  the  percentage 
of  white  illiterates  is  4.76.  It  is  probable  that  bad  roads  are  part- 
ly a  cause  and  partly  an  effect  of  ignorance.  The  two  are  certain- 
ly closely  related.  Universities  are  coming  to  realize  that  they 
must  prepare  to  meet  the  increasing  demand  for  men  specially 
qualified  in  highway  engineering. 

INTERNATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  ROADS.  Y.  B.  1908,  p.  147. 
An  international  road  congress  at  Paris  was  participated  in  by  the 
representatives  of  29  governments,  late  in  the  year.  Almost  100 
valuable  papers  on  sundry  phases  of  the  subject  were  presented  and 
an  international  bureau  of  roads  was  formed  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  United  States  Government. 


18  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


WHAT  A  GOOD  ROAD  DID.  A  farmer  in  Sullivan  County, 
Tenn.,  in  1908  hauled  barbed  wire  23  miles  from  Bristol  to  Kings- 
port.  His  maximum  load  with  a  two  horse  team  was  200-pounds. 
Three  days  were  required  for  a  round  trip.  To  haul  a  ton  required 
12  days,  and  at  $3  a  day  for  man  and  team  the  cost  was  $36.  The 
County  issued  bonds  for  road  improvements  and  under  it  the  road 
was  improved  so  that  the  same  teams  now  draw  a  ton  to  the  load 
and  make  one  round  trip  in  two  days  at  a  cost  of  $6.  The  ton- 
mile  cost  under  unimproved  conditions  was  $1.56,  and  this  cost 
was  reduced  to  36  cents  by  the  improved.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
505,  quoted  extensively  above,  contains  many  concrete  examples 
like  this  one  from  Tennessee. 

PHYSICAL.  TESTING  OF  ROCK.  Bulletin  No.  44  of  the  Office 
of  Public  Roads,  published  in  1912,  treats  of  this  subject  in  detail, 
covering  methods  used  and  the  results  obtained.  It  is  by  Albert  T. 
Goldbeck,  testing  engineer  of  the  Office,  and  Frank  H.  Jackson,  Jr., 
of  the  Office.  The  authors  treat  of  agencies  destructive  of  roads — 
mechanical,  chemical,  and  physical.  Cementing  values,  abrasion 
tests,  experiments  as  to  toughness,  hardness,  etc.,  are  given  in  de- 
tail, together  with  interesting  facts  concerning  resistance  to  wear, 
and  absorption. 

DUST  PREVENTION  AND  ROAD  PRESERVATION.  These 
two  vital  subjects  are  satisfactorily  treated  in  Agricultural  Bulletin 
No.  105  and  in  Public  Roads  Circulars  Nos.  92  and  98.  The  results 
of  many  practical  and  scientific  experiments  are  given  in  detail. 
Tar,  oil,  artificial  asphalt,  brick,  cement,  and  slag  are  treated.  Ce- 
ment and  oil-cement,  vitrified  brick,  tar,  macadam,  and  other  ma- 
terials are  fully  discussed. 

MACADAM  ROADS.  Much  valuable  information  on  this  sub- 
ject is  contained  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  338,  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, 1909.  Processes  and  essential  features  are  exemplified  in  a 
clear  discussion. 

THE  ROAD  DRAG  AND  ITS  WORK.  Farmers'  Bulletin  597, 
1914,  contains  an  interesting  discussion  of  this  question.  It  was 
prepared  by  the  Office  of  Public  Roads.  When  it  is  understood  that 
only  about  200,000  miles  of  the  2,000,000  miles  of  public  roads  in 
the  United  States  have  been  given  a  hard  surface  and  that  about 
one-half  of  the  200,000  miles  are  surfaced  with  gravel,  the  impor- 
tance of  every  effective  device  for  maintaining  the  simpler  type  of 
roads  becomes  apparent. 

FACTS  ABOUT  PAVING  MATERIAL.  An  able  work  entitled 
Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Material,  by  George  W.  Tillson,  con- 
tains much  valuable  material  concerning  the  history  and  develop- 
ment of  roads  and  pavements.  He  says  that  a  stone  causeway  a 
mile  long  has  been  discovered  to  the  east  of  the  Great  Pyramid. 
This  is  supposed  to  be  part  of  a  road  built  by  Pharaoh  to  convey 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  19 

stones  for  the  construction  of  the  Pyramid  4,000  B.  C.  The  City 
of  Memphis  is  said  to  have  been  connected  with  the  pyramids  by 
a  roadway  two  leagues  long. 

The  Carthaginians  are  credited  with  being  the  first  people  to 
construct  and  maintain  a  general  system  of  roads.  The  great  Afri- 
can city  was  founded  about  600  B.  C.  and  became  a  rival  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 

The  Appian  Way  was  built  by  Claudius,  300  B.  C.,  and  the 
Flaminian  Way  some  years  later.  The  Appian  Way  is  said  to  have 
been  in  good  repair  800  years  after  its  completion.  Professor  John 
Beekman,  University  of  Gottingen,  says  the  streets  of  Thebes  were 
regularly  cleaned,  and  the  Talmud  says  the  streets  of  Jerusalem 
were  swept  daily,  so  they  must  have  been  paved.  Genoa  boasted 
of  good  roads  a  thousand  years  before  Columbus  discovered  Amer- 
ica. 

Ancient  Mexico  and  Peru  had  wonderful  systems  of  roads. 
Those  of  Peru  extended  more  than  a  thousand  leagues. 

Many  interesting  facts  concerning  ancient  roads  are  to  be 
found  in  Mr.  Tillson's  volume.  See  also  Page's  Roads,  Paths  and 
Bridges. 

WOOD.  In  1839  wood  was  frequently  used  as  a  paving  ma- 
terial in  London.  Concrete  was  first  used  as  a  base  for  pavements 
in  that  city  in  1872.  Glasgow  first  used  granite  block  and  wood 
for  pavements  in  1841,  asphalt  in  1873. 

Macaulay  said  in  his  History  of  England:  "Of  all  inventions, 
the  alphabet  and  printing-press  alone  excepted,  those  inventions 
which  abridge  distance  have  done  most  for  the  civilization  of  our 
species." 

The  relative  cost  of  paving  per  square  yard  complete,  in  New 
York  City,  1911,  was  as  follows:  Granite,  $3.50;  wood,  $3.50; 
asphalt,  $2.00;  brick,  $2.25;  bithulitic,  $2.35. 

Data  collected  from  many  American  cities  show  that  the  life 
of  granite  is  25  years;  treated  wood,  20  years;  brick,  15  years, 
asphalt,  18  years;  bithulitic,  15  years.  Tillson,  page  168.  In  dur- 
ability, sanitariness,  easiness  of  cleaning,  non-slipperiness,  and  fa- 
vorableness  to  travel,  the  paving  materials  named  stand  in  the  fol- 
lowing relations:  granite,  97;  bithulitic,  93;  brick,  91;  asphalt,  91. 

BRICK.  Brick  pavements  have  been  used  in  Holland  ever 
since  the  thirteenth  century.  Tillson,  page  295.  Amsterdam  and 
Rotterdam  use  brick  extensively,  and  the  life  of  a  brick  pavement 
there  is  from  10  to  20  years  when  the  bricks  are  turned,  after 
which  they  are  good  for  4  years  longer.  Japan  has  used  brick 
pavements  for  more  than  100  years.  In  the  United  States  the  first 
brick  pavement  was  laid  in  Charleston,  W.  Va.,  in  1870.  It  was 
good  after  27  years.  The  word  vitrified,  applied  to  brick  pave- 
ments, does  not  mean  glassy  or  vitreous,  as  defined  by  dictionar- 


20  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


ies.  It  means,  in  engineering,  that  a  chemical  action  has  taken 
place  so  that  the  clay  particles  have  coalesced  and  become  fused 
by  the  action  of  heat,  forming  a  solid  new  homogeneous  whole,  but 
not  that  the  fusion  has  been  made  complete  and  the  entire  mass 
brought  to  a  semi-liquid  state.  In  Bloomington,  111.,  in  1875, 
brick  pavements  were  laid  and  they  lasted  well  until  1894,  when  it 
was  found  that  the  brick  had  worn  %  of  an  inch.  Wheeling,  W. 
Va.,  adopted  brick  in  1883,  Steubenville,  O.,  in  1884.  The  Steu- 
benville  pavement  was  good  in  1899,  and  the  street  superintendent 
reported  that  it  would  be  good  for  10  years  more.  It  had  required 
no  repairs  up  to  1899,  and  there  was  no  prospect  that  repairs 
would  be  required.  Galesburg,  111.,  began  using  brick  in  1884; 
Zanesville,  O.,  in  1885;  Peoria,  111.,  in  1885;  Philadelphia,  1887; 
New  York,  1891. 

Metropolitan  brick,  of  Canton,  0.,  is  one  of  the  best  types 
made.  Brick  should  be  tough,  strong,  homogeneous,  uniform, 
dense,  and  impervious  to  moisture.  Some  of  the  pyramids  were 
made  of  bricks,  and  bricks  were  used  in  the  Tower  of  Babel.  The 
walls  and  temples  of  Athens  were  made  in  part  of  brick.  The 
Egyptians  knew  how  to  burn  good  brick.  See  Tillson,  page  99. 

Vitrified  paving  bricks  have  been  in  general  use  in  the  United 
States  ever  since  1870.  They  are  made  from  shales  and  the  less 
refractory  fire  clays. 

NEW  YORK.  The  following  subsurface  structures  are  found 
in  New  York.  Sewers,  water  mains,  gas  mains,  elevated  column 
foundations,  conduits  for  light  and  power,  telephone  conduits,  con- 
duits for  electric  railroad  power,  mail  tubes,  police  and  fire  alarm 
conduits,  cable  line  conduits  for  transatlantic  lines,  steam  pipes  to 
convey  heat  and  power,  refrigeration  pipes,  private  tunnels  connect- 
ing properties  on  opposite  sides  of  streets,  etc.  When  the  subways 
were  built  great  difficulties  were  encountered  in  caring  for  these 
subway  improvements,  which  were  obstacles. 

VITRIFIED  BRICK  PAVEMENTS  FOR  COUNTRY  ROADS. 
Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  246  contains  about  25,000 
words  on  this  subject  by  a  construction  chief  and  a  highway  engi- 
neer. The  discussion  covers  raw  materials,  manufacture,  physical 
characteristics,  construction,  cost,  maintenance,  etc.  The  conclu- 
sion urges  the  importance  of  proper  engineering  supervision  in  this 
form  of  construction.  As  brick  pavements  are  the  most  expensive 
types  ever  constructed  on  country  roads  they  must  be  carefully 
planned,  then  built  right.  The  cost  of  upkeep  on  a  properly  made 
brick  road  is  very  slight.  These  pavements  need  careful  inspection 
during  the  first  few  years  of  their  use.  They  are  durable  under  all 
traffic  conditions,  afford  easy  traction  and  fair  footholds,  and  are 
cheaply  maintained  and  easily  cleaned.  Their  crushing  strength 
Is  from  10,000  to  20,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  cost  of 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  21 


shaping  and  rolling  the  subgrade  after  rough  grading  is  completed 
usually  runs  from  3  to  5  cents  per  square  yard.  Stone  curbs  cost 
from  25  to  75  cents  per  linear  foot,  while  cement  curbs  run  from 
20  to  50  cents  per  linear  foot. 

ROAD  MODELS.  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  220  is  interesting. 
It  treats  of  Roman  roads,  French  roads,  macadam,  telford,  align- 
ment, location,  foundation,  subgrade,  shoulders,  earth  and  sand- 
clay  roads,  cement  concrete  roads,  bituminous  concrete  roads,  "To- 
peka  specifications,"  paved  roads  other  than  concrete,  culverts  and 
bridges,  roadside  treatment,  and  road  machinery.  A  score  of  beau- 
tiful illustrations  add  to  the  value  of  the  treatise. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT  CONCRETE.  Agriculture  Bulletin  No. 
249  is  on  Portland  Cement  as  a  pavement  for  country  roads.  It 
discusses  materials,  construction,  cost,  and  maintenance.  It  con- 
cludes that  the  economic  efficiency  of  concrete  roads  is  undeter- 
mined, but  the  indications  are  that  this  type  will  prove  to  be  well 
suited  for  certain  conditions.  Thin  bituminous  wearing  surfaces 
for  concrete  pavements  are  not  justified.  This  bulletin  is  exhaus- 
tive and  the  question  is  presented  in  detail. 

WOOD  FOR  PAVING.  Persons  who  desire  information  as  to 
manufacturers  who  will  supply  literature  on  this  subject  free  of 
cost,  should  consult  the  Good  Roads  Year-Book  lists  in  the  volume 
for  1915.  Spalding's  Text-Book  on  Roads  and  Pavements  has  a 
good  chapter  on  this  subject.  It  treats  of  types,  tests,  treatments, 
construction,  and  maintenance.  Almost  all  the  recognized  engi- 
neering journals  and  text-books  discuss  this  subject.  See  next 
paragraph. 

GOVERNMENT  ADVICE.  If  in  doubt  concerning  any  phase 
of  road  work,  or  if  in  need  of  general  information,  remember  that 
the  one  unfailing  and  painstaking  source  is  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads,  Washington,  D.  C.  Write  for  information. 

A  GREAT  TASK.  The  National  Highways  Association,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  estimates  that  more  than  twenty-five  billion  dollars 
will  be  spent  in  the  next  25  years  on  the  2,300,000  miles  of  high- 
ways in  the  United  States.  The  Association  advocates  a  National 
highway  commission  to  aid  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
50,000  miles  of  trunk  highway  lines  in  the  United  States.  The 
Association  publishes  many  interesting  booklets  and  maps.  It 
maintains  that  50,000  miles,  properly  located,  would  serve  half  the 
population  of  the  United  States.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  two 
horses  haul  one  bale  of  cotton  a  few  miles  a  day  on  a  bad  road 
and  12  bales  double  that  distance  over  a  good  road,  the  Association 
is  for  immediate  action.  On  a  poor  country  road,  say  their  engi- 
neers, it  costs  from  four  to  ten  times  as  much  to  carry  farm  prod- 
uce as  on  a  good  road.  More  than  five  billion  tons  a  year  pass 
over  the  country  roads.  These  engineers  estimate  a  saving  of  three 


22  GOLDEN  ROADS. 

billion  dollars  a  year  in  cost  of  transportation  alone  over  the  sys- 
tem they  propose.  They  also  estimate  that  the  improvement  of 
two  million  miles  of  the  country's  roads  would  increase  land  values 
ten  billion  dollars.  These  are  some  of  their  arguments  for  National 
aid  in  building  roads. 

The  ambition  of  the  National  Highways  Association  to  have 
an  expert  commission  appointed  by  Congress  before  that  body  com- 
mits itself  forthwith  to  the  spending  of  large  sums  seems  just  and 
logical. 

Charles  Henry  Davis,  C.  E.,  who  is  president  and  founder  of 
the  Association,  has  established  a  large  library  of  highway  engi- 
neering, located  at  Columbia  University,  New  York  City.  It  is 
for  the  benefit  of  all  persons  interested  in  any  phase  of  highway 
engineering  or  associated  fields  of  activity.  It  is  known  as  the 
Davis  Library  of  Highway  Engineering. 

NATIONAL  GOOD  ROADS.  The  National  Highways  Associa- 
tion gives  the  following  interesting  facts: 

There  are  about  1,000,000  automobiles  in  the  United  States. 
If  they  average  25  miles  a  day  for  300  working  days  we  get  a 
mileage  of  7,500,000,000  per  annum.  At  15  cents  a  mile  operating 
expenses  the  total  exceeds  $1,000,000,000  a  year.  A  goodly  sum. 
Will  not  good  roads  save  10%  of  this?  We  think  more.  This 
means  not  less  than  $100,000,000  per  annum  saving. 

There  are  more  than  27,000,000  horses  and  mules,  4,000,000 
horse-drawn  vehicles,  2,000,000  bicycles,  100,000  motor-cycles,  and 
1,000,000  automobiles  in  the  United  States.  These  are  valued  at 
more  than  $5,000,000,000.  If  from  good  roads  only  10%  in  de- 
preciation per  annum  were  saved  it  would  amount  to  the  enormous 
sum  of  $500,000,000  every  year.  How  long  would  it  take  us  to 
give  our  great  country  good  roads,  from  North  to  South  and  East 
to  West,  out  of  such  savings? 

Congress  now  appropriates  annually  $1,000,000,000,  distributed 
as  follows:  War,  past,  present,  and  to  come,  420  millions,  or  42% 
of  the  total;  postal  service,  230  millions,  23%;  Governmental  ex- 
penses, legislative,  executive,  etc.,  200  millions,  20%;  public  works 
— buildings,  rivers,  harbors,  the  Canal,  etc.,  110  millions,  11%; 
education  and  statistics,  40  millions,  4%.  The  total  is  1,000  million, 
or  100%. 

How  absurd  to  liberty-loving,  peace-loving  Americans  to  spend 
any  such  amount  on  war — past,  present,  and  to  come — and  to 
refuse  to  spend  $50,000,000  per  annum  on  a  road  system  that  will 
be  a  benefit  far  outstripping  any  other  within  the  knowledge  of 
mankind!  Such  appropriations  would  build  a  system  of  50,000 
miles  of  National  Highways  in  20  years.  Such  a  system  would 
encourage  and  accentuate  the  building  of  good  roads  everywhere 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  23 


by  states,  counties,  townships,  and  towns  as  the  collecting  and 
distributing  medium  of  these  National  Highways  and  for  the  use 
and  benefit  of  all  the  people  of  the  Nation. 

CALIFORNIA'S  PROGRESS.  From  1895  to  1898  appropria- 
tions were  for  repairs,  but  under  Governor  Gillett  a  movement  for 
improvement  on  a  large  scale  was  started  and  it  has  been  prose- 
cuted vigorously  by  the  Johnson  administration.  The  State  High- 
ways Act  providing  $18,000,000  for  the  construction  of  a  system 
of  highways  distinct  from  the  state  roads  built  under  Legislative 
appropriations  became  available  so  that  work  was  started  May  21, 
1912.  Plans  were  soon  drawn  for  1164  miles,  including  a  trunk 
line  down  the  central  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joa- 
quin  and  a  trunk  following  the  Coast.  Other  surveys  making  a 
total  aggregate  of  2150  miles  were  made  later.  In  March,  1915, 
the  Legislature  submitted  a  bond  issue  for  $15,000,000  to  com- 
plete the  projected  trunk  lines  and  about  eight  laterals  intercepting 
trunks  or  uniting  Coast  and  Valley  trunks  so  as  to  join  Valley  and 
Coast  sections.  The  act  provided  that  the  electors  shall  vote  on 
this  issue  in  November,  1916.  The  highways  thus  far  constructed 
are  largely  of  cement  concrete  with  a  thin  bituminous  top. 

COUNTY  BOND  ISSUES  FOR  ROAD  IMPROVEMENT.  An 
interesting  pamphlet  of  some  15,000  words  on  this  subject  gives 
a  series  of  controversial  letters  written  by  D.  H.  Barger,  L.  E. 
Johnson,  and  others  regarding  the  advisability  of  a  bonding  of  Taze- 
well  County,  Virginia,  for  good  roads.  The  entire  question  of 
"paying  as  you  go"  or  "bond  as  you  require"  is  discussed  by  able 
antagonists. 

The  first  letter  is  addressed  to  L.  E.  Johnson,  president  of  the 
N.  &  W.  Ry.  Co.,  Roanoke.  The  writer  asks  whether  the  Company, 
a  heavy  tax-payer,  favors  the  $625,000  bond  issue.  The  President 
answers  YES  in  capital  letters,  and  proceeds  to  give  some  con- 
vincing reasons  in  a  2,000  word  reply.  He  holds  that  economic 
wisdom  and  business  judgment  favor  the  bonds.  Educational  and 
social  reasons  also  appeal  to  him.  He  quotes  from  such  documents 
as  have  been  quoted  in  the  preceding  pages  of  Golden  Roads,  and 
argues  for  every  reasonable  step  that  will  remove  the  wastes  and 
burdens  of  high  transportation  charges,  due  to  bad  roads.  He  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  cost  of  hauling  per  ton-mile  is  very 
low  on  the  famous  highways  of  Prance,  Belgium,  and  particularly 
in  Germany,  where  it  amounts  to  an  average  rate  of  8.5  cents  per 
ton-mile.  He  concludes  that  the  Tazewell  bond  issue  would  be  a 
great  investment  for  that  County. 

Mr.  D.  H.  Barger  complains  to  Mr.  Johnson  that  excessive 
taxation  is  even  more  fatal  than  bad  roads.  He  insists  that  coun- 
ties should  pay  as  they  go. 


24  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


The  railroad  president  comes  back  with  a  scathing  5,000  word 
reply  in  which  he  says  that  the  whole  structure  of  our  industrial 
and  governmental  fabric  rests  upon  the  mechanism  of  credit.  He 

adds:  "The  amount  of  legal  tender  actually  in  circulation  in  the 
United  States  in  1910,  was  only  $34.52  per  capita,  and  would  be 
pitifully  inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  of  business  if  all  trans- 
actions were  conducted  on  a  cash  basis.  The  building  of  our  great 
railroads,  the  financing  of  our  war  of  independence,  and  subse- 
quent conflicts,  have  been  conducted  through  the  powerful  agency 
of  credit.  Our  entire  banking  system,  involving  $1,852,834,000.00, 
rests  upon  the  foundation  stone  credit.  Would  you  carry  your 
theory  so  far  as  to  advise  a  thrifty  young  farmer  to  refrain  from 
buying  a  farm  because  he  had  not  the  entire  purchase  price  in  cash? 
Would  it  have  ever  been  possible  for  the  vast  domains  of  the  eariy 
landed  proprietors  to  be  divided  up  into  small  farms  if  the  practice 
of  partial  payments  had  not  been  introduced?  Do  you  think  that  a 
man  who  owns  an  unimproved  piece  of  city  property  and  pays  taxes 
upon  it  should  hold  it  as  an  unproductive  property,  rather  than 
borrow  money  with  which  to  put  up  buildings  which  would  yield 
him  a  return  over  and  above  his  outlay? 

"You  say  this  is  a  fundamental  feature  which  good  business 
men  practice  in  their  private  affairs.  I  believe  that  99  per  cent  of 
the  fortunes  which  have  been  made  in  America  have  been  based 
upon  the  theory  and  mechanism  of  credit.  The  only  examples  of 
fortunes  accumulated  by  the  'pay  as  you  go'  plan  are  those  of  the 
miser  who  hoards  his  gold,  and  thus  demoralizes  the  legitimate 
channels  of  business  by  withholding  from  it  a  medium  of  exchange." 

The  writer  makes  it  plain  that  a  tax  for  road  improvement  is 
an  invesment  and  not  a  loss.  He  holds  that  the  direct  return  to 
the  farmer  will  be  many  times  greater  than  the  tax.  He  adds  that 
the  increase  in  farm  values  as  a  direct  result  of  good  road  im- 
provement is  so  great  that  the  tax  rate  is  often  less  than  before 
the  issuing  of  bonds.  He  adds  many  interesting  examples,  from 
which  the  following  are  selected: 

Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C.,  built  150  miles  by  convict  labor; 
cost  about  $3,500.00  per  mile.  Land  8  miles  from  Charlotte  $10.00 
to  $25.00  per  acre  then,  but  now  from  $50.00  to  $100.00  per  acre. 

Jackson  County,  Ala.,  $250,000.00  bonds,  built  125  miles  in 
2  years.  Census  value  land  in  1890  averaged  $4.80  per  acre, 
Ready  purchasers  now  at  $15.00  to  $25.00  per  acre. 

In  Bradley  County,  Tenn.,  population  of  16,000  in  1900,  issued 
$90,000.00  in  bonds.  Bitter  opposition,  but  before  money  was 
half  spent,  amount  increased  to  $186,000.00,  selling  for  $120,000.00. 
Before  roads  were  built  land  went  begging  at  from  $8.00  to  $10.00 
per  acre,  and  now  sells  easily  for  from  $15.00  to  $30.00  per  acre. 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  25 

Hall  County,  Ga.  (Gainesville),  65-acre  farm  bought  for 
$1,800.00.  Macadam  road  built  through  farm  and  owner  offered 
$4,500.00  for  same. 

Hamlin  County,  Tenn.  (Morristown),  farm  sold  for  $6,000.00 
before  roads  were  built;  and  afterwards  sold  to  Mr.  Campbell,  of 
Hancock  County,  for  $15,000.00. 

Apex,  N.  C.,  farm  before  gravel  road  built  sold  for  $700.00, 
after  road  built,  sold  for  $4,500.00. 

The  Williamsburg  and  Jamestown  Highway,  built  under  the 
direction  of  the  United  States  Office  of  Public  Roads  in  1907,  ex- 
tends from  Williamsburg  to  Jamestown  Island,  and  is  part  macadam 
and  part  sand-clay.  Since  its  construction  a  farm  with  a  good 
standing  of  timber,  offered  before  the  road  was  built  for  $4,500.00 
without  a  taker,  was  sold  soon  after  the  road  was  completed  for 
$8,000.00.  Since  then  the  owners  have  been  hauling  1,800  to 
2,000  feet  of  lumber  with  two  mules,  where  before  it  was  impos- 
sible to  haul  more  than  600  feet.  Another  tract  of  land  of  205 
acres,  of  which  100  acres  were  in  timber,  was  sold  before  the  road 
was  built  for  $4,000.00,  and  since  the  road  was  built,  the  standing 
timber  alone  has  sold  for  $3,500.00. 

In  Bond  Issues  for  Road  Improvement  (the  Honorable  Lee 
McClung,  treasurer  of  the  United  States  when  he  wrote  the  paper) 
says  some  pertinent  things  on  this  vital  subject.  This  paper,  re- 
printed from  the  proceedings  of  the  American  Highway  Associa- 
tion, 1912,  gives  some  valuable  tables  and  data.  He  shows  that 
$1,000,0000  at  4  per  cent  for  twenty  years  brings  these  results: 
By  sinking  fund  method  the  interest  is  $800,000;  by  serial  bond 
method,  $420,000.  The  difference  in  interest  in  favor  of  the  serial 
method  is  $380,000.  Again:  $1,000,000  sinking  fund  require- 
ments for  20  years  on  a  4  per  cent  basis,  the  decimal  for  $1  being 
0.034749,  $660,231.  And  $1,000,000  at  4  per  cent  for  twenty 
years  yields  interest  in  the  sum  of  $800,000.  The  cost  of  the  loan 
by  the  sinking  fund  method  is  therefore  $1,460,231.  The  cost  by 
the  serial  method  is  $1,420,000.  The  difference  in  cost  in  favor 
of  the  serial  bond  is  thus  $40,231.  Add  the  interest  saving  of 
$380,000  and  you  have  an  advantage  of  $420,231  in  favor  of  the 
serial  bond  method. 

Mr.  McClung  adds:  "One  of  the  objections  advanced  to  the 
serial  plan  is  that  the  earlier  payments  are  too  large  on  account 
of  the  large  interest  payments  and  a  heavy  drain  on  the  taxpayers. 
However,  this  only  applies  to  the  plan  of  paying  an  equal  amount 
on  the  principal  each  year;  the  annual  charge  would  be  made  less 
from  the  beginning  than  the  sinking  fund  requirements  would  be. 
The  scheme  is  flexible  and  a  plan  can  be  worked  out  to  suit  almost 


26  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


any  condition.  Naturally  the  larger  the  payments  on  account  of 
principal  in  the  early  years  the  larger  will  be  the  saving  in  interest 
on  the  loan." 

Agriculture  Bulletin  136,  entitled  Highway  Bonds,  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  a  sinking  fund  is  a  constant  temptation  to  use 
it  for  purposes  other  than  those  originally  intended,  especially  if 
officers  in  charge  of  operations  are  changed  frequently,  as  they  are 
during  a  long  term  of  years.  The  annuity  and  the  serial  methods 
are  shown  to  be  cheaper  than  the  sinking  fund  plan. 

SERIAL  BONDS.  The  serial  bond  differs  somewhat  from  the 
annuity  bond,  because,  instead  of  keeping  the  annual  payment  of 
both  principal  and  interest  constant,  the  principal  alone  retired  each 
year  remains  fixed.  This  type  of  bond  has  become  common  for 
highway  purposes  in  recent  years,  and  during  1912  and  1913  the 
number  of  serial  issues  exceeded  the  number  of  issues  for  any 
other  single  given  term. 

The  total  expense  to  the  community  under  the  serial  plan  is 
somewhat  less  than  under  the  annuity  plan.  The  expense  by  either 
method  is,  however,  considerably  less  than  the  expense  under  the 
sinking-fund  plan. 

By  the  annuity  method,  if  $100,000  is  to  be  issued  at  5  per 
cent  annually  and  retired  in  20  years,  the  annual  amount  of  in- 
terest and  principal  is  at  once  determined  to  be  approximately 
$8,000.  For  the  same  bond  issue  under  the  serial  plan,  the  total 
annual  payment  varies  because  the  interest  varies,  but  each  yearly 
payment  of  interest  and  principal  is  nevertheless  fixed. 

Under  the  sinking-fund  plan  the  annual  payment  necessary 
for  principal  and  interest  is  theoretically  constant,  but  is  depends 
upon  the  interest  realized  upon  the  sinking  fund.  It  is  not  safe, 
as  a  rule,  to  estimate  this  interest  at  more  than  3  %  per  cent. 
Then  for  a  $100,000  20-year  loan,  with  annual  interest  on  the 
sinking  fund,  the  total  annual  payment  would  be  $8,536.11.  If 
the  sinking  fund  could  earn  the  rate  of  interest  which  is  paid  upon 
the  loan  there  would  be  no  advantage  in  expense  to  the  community 
in  the  annuity  or  the  serial  bond  over  the  sinking-fund  bond. 

It  is  an  unfortunate  fact  that  most  highways  do  not  have  a  life 
of  30  years,  and  it  is  now  quite  evident  that  the  life  of  the  high- 
way and  not  the  apparent  economic  term  of  the  bond  should  deter- 
mine the  length  of  the  loan.  Many  miles  of  natural  soil  roads  are 
annually  built  by  30-year  bond  issues.  There  is  usually  no  pro- 
vision for  repair  and  maintenance  charges,  and  little  business 
organization  in  the  county  road  system.  This  practice  is  finan- 
cially dangerous. 

By  the  annuity  method  both  the  principal  and  interest  are 
discharged  by  constant  annual  or  semi-annual  payments.  The 
amount  of  each  payment  or  installment  is  determined  by  the  rate 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  27 


of  interest  and  the  term  of  the  bond.  It  usually  is  necessary  to 
subdivide  the  bond  issue  into  individual  bonds  of  $100,  $500,  or 
$1,000  each.  "The  resulting  periodic  payments  of  principal  and 
interest  must  vary  slightly  because  of  this  adjustment.  See  Agri- 
culture Bulletin  136  (also  heretofore  analyzed),  p.  16  for  complete 
tables  and  details  of  cost  and  comparison  of  advantages. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  first  cost  of  construction  is 
not  the  total  cost  of  a  highway.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion 
among  engineers  as  to  what  constitutes  the  total  cost  of  a  high- 
way during  a  given  term  of  years.  Questions  arise  over  the  in- 
terest charge  on  the  original  cost,  the  annual  payments  to  amortize 
or  retire  the  loan,  the  depreciation  charge,  and  the  repair  and 
maintenance  charge. 


Sources  of  Road  Information. 

Persons  interested  in  forwarding  good  roads  campaigns  should 
know  where  to  obtain  specific  information.  Here  is  a  list  of  some 
valuable  publications: 

Good  Roads,  a  weekly  journal  of  road  and  street  engineering 
and  contracting,  52  numbers,  $2  a  year;  or  twelve  numbers  (the 
first  issue  in  each  month)  $1  a  year;  150  Nassau  Street,  New 
York  City. 

The  American  City,  87  Nassau  Street,  New  York  City;  $3  a 
year;  a  high-class  illustrated  magazine  which  frequently  discusses 
streets  and  roads. 

The  Good  Roads  Year-Book,  published  by  the  American  High- 
way Association,  Washington,  D.  C.,  once  each  year;  $1  a  copy; 
abounds  in  tables,  lists  of  road  associations,  summaries  of  laws, 
progress,  etc. 

American  Highways  Association,  Washington,  D.  C.  This  So- 
ciety publishes  elaborate  booklets,  bulletins,  and  reports.  Write 
for  details.  The  organization  is  prominently  back  of  the  American 
Road  Congress,  which  publishes  valuable  reports  each  year  at  $1 
for  each  copy. 

U.  S.  Bulletins  on  every  phase  of  good  roads.  Address  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  lists  and 
prices.  See  many  of  these  cited  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

Road  Construction  and  Maintenance,  published  as  an  adver- 
tisement by  the  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder  Company,  Wil- 
mington, Del;  an  illustrated  pamphlet  of  more  than  120  pages, 
containing  much  valuable  information. 


28  GOLDEN  ROADS. 


The  Highway  Magazine,  another  advertisement,  but  valuable 
withal;  published  by  the  California  Corrugated  Culvert  Co.,  Los 
Angeles;  illustrated;  monthy;  full  of  interesting  and  valuable  in- 
formation. Address  National  Corrugated  Culvert  Association,  Mid- 
dletown,  Ohio,  the  main  firm. 

The  Oregon  Voter,  Vol.  1,  No.  7,  Portland,  Oregon,  10  cents, 
but  probably  out  of  print;  contains  almost  40,000  words  on  high- 
way construction,  cost,  and  maintenance,  being  a  stenographic  re- 
port of  the  findings  of  a  Chamber  of  Commerce  committee.  This 
is  of  great  value  to  persons  interested  in  improving  city  streets, 
for  the  information  is  detailed.  The  investigation  of  modern  paving 
materials  and  methods  was  comprehensive  and  thorough.  Write 
to  the  author  of  Golden  Roads  for  synopsis. 

The  High  Cost  of  Hauling,  an  able  paper  by  Logan  Waller 
Page,  director  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads.  Address  him  con- 
cerning type-written  copies. 

Why  Do  We  Want  Good  Roads?  An  able  paper,  1912,  full 
of  examples.  A  satisfactory  summary  in  1,000  words;  will  probably 
be  supplied  by  the  Office  of  Public  Roads. 

Road  Improvement  in  the  South,  an  article  by  Logan  Waller 
Page  in  Manufacturers'  Record,  Baltimore,  Md.,  January,  1912. 
Address  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  for  information. 

Good  Roads  the  Way  to  Progress,  being  an  elaborate  article 
by  the  director  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads.  See  World's  Work, 
July,  1909,  or  address  the  Office  of  Public  Roads. 

Roads  and  Pavements,  by  I.  O.  Baker,  published  by  John 
Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 

Highway  Engineering,  by  Blanchard  &  Drown,  John  Wiley  & 
Sons,  New  York. 

Address  the  E.  L.  Powers  Co.,  150  Nassau  Street,  New  York, 
for  a  list  of  more  than  fifty  books  on  road  and  street  construction. 

Bibliography  of  Valuable  Books.  In  the  Good  Roads  Year- 
Book,  1915,  page  320,  is  a  complete  list  of  documents,  treating  of 
road,  bridge,  and  culvert  construction. 

STATE  HIGHWAY  DEPARTMENTS  OP  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  See  a  complete  list  in  the  Good  Roads  Year-Book,  1915, 
page,  229.  See  also  an  exhaustive  list  of  good  roads  associations 
in  the  U.  S.  following  page  242. 

SHADE  TREES  ALONG  ROADS.  The  U.  S.  Government  has 
no  publications  on  this  subject.  Leigh  H.  Irvine,  San  Luis  Obispo, 
Cal.,  will  supply  a  long  list  for  5  cents. 

Haveners  Road  Primer,  published  by  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co., 
Chicago,  is  a  wonderful  book  of  159  pages,  written  for  children, 
but  worth  adult  attention.  It  covers  most  of  the  fundamental 
problems  clearly  and  satisfactorily. 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  29 


American  Highways,  by  N.  S.  Shaler,  published  by  the  Century 
Co.,  is  a  trustworthy  popular  book  on  road  conditions  and  the 
means  by  which  they  may  be  bettered.  The  author  is  of  the  staff 
of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University,  and  his 
book  is  well  worth  a  place  on  the  shelf  of  the  student  of  the  road 
question. 

Roads,  Paths,  and  Bridges,  by  Logan  Waller  Page,  published 
by  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York  City,  is  a  valuable  work  by  the 
director  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  of  the  U.  S.  The  author 
discusses  types  of  roads  and  road  problems. 

Spalding's  Text-Book  on  Roads  and  Pavements,  John  Wiley  & 
Sons.  The  author  treats  the  entire  subject.  He  is  an  able  engi- 
neer and  writer.  The  book  contains  more  than  400  pages  and  is 
unusually  clear  and  interesting. 

BRICK  ROADS.  For  further  information  on  brick  roads  see 
Good  Roads  Year-Book,  1915,  p.  140;  Ravenel's  Road  Primer,  also, 
p.  140;  Spalding's  Text-Book,  p.  222;  Tillson's  Street  Pavements, 
also  an  article  by  him  in  the  American  Highway  Association's  re- 
ports for  1912;  Road  Congress  Reports,  p.  157,  year  1913;  Agri- 
cultural Bulletin  No.  323;  Good  Roads  (magazine),  May,  1915, 
page  190;  American  City,  February,  1915,  p.  121;  American  City, 
October,  1914. 

METHODS  AND  MATERIALS.  The  Good  Roads  Year-Book 
contains  detailed  information  concerning  treatises  on  road  and 
bridge  construction,  road  periodicals,  bulletins,  circulars,  and  docu- 
ments, permanent  road  congresses  and  societies,  manufacturers  of 
machinery  and  material,  road  contractors  by  states,  and  much 
kindred  useful  information.  Good  Roads,  The  American  City,  and 
other  technical  publications  contain  much  data  of  this  character. 
Consult  the  nearest  public  library. 

Town  Development,  an  entertaining  monthly  magazine,  118 
East  28th  St.,  New  York  City.  This  is  a  high-class  publication 
which  frequently  has  illuminating  articles  on  good  roads  and  their 
benefits.  The  subscription  price  is  $3  a  year. 

The  World's  Work,  11  W.  32d  Street,  New  York.  This  famous 
magazine  conducts  a  promotion  department  and  its  columns  fre- 
quently contain  valuable  articles  on  good  roads.  The  subscription 
price  is  $3  a  year.  If  you  do  not  take  this  or  other  publications 
named  in  this  department  you  may  be  able  to  consult  them  at 
your  public  library. 

Aitken,  Thomas — Road  Making  and  Maintenance,  London,  1907. 

Baker,  Ira  O. — A  Treatise  on  Roads  and  Pavements,  New 
York,  1905. 

Bergier,  Nicholas. — History  of  Great  Highways  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  Brussels,  1728. 


30 GOLDEN  ROADS. 

Bruce,  P.  A. — Economic  History  of  Virginia  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  Vol.  1. 

Byrne,  Austin  T. — Highway  Construction,  New  York,   1907. 
Coane,    John    Montgomery — Australasian    Roads,    Melbourne, 
1908. 

Elliott,    Charles    G. — Engineering    for    Land    Drainage,    New 

York,   1910. 

Frost,  Harwood — The  Art  of  Road  Making,  New  York,  1910. 
Gallatin,  Albert. — Roads  and  Canals,  Report  to  U.  S.  Senate, 
April  6,  1808. 

Gillespie,  W.  M. — A  Manual  of  Road  Making,  New  York  and 
Chicago,  1871. 

Gillette,  Halbert  P. — The  Economics  of  Road  Construction,  New 
York,  1906. 

Green  well,  Allan  and  Elsden,  J.  V. — Roads,  London,   1901. 

Herschel,  Clemens — The  Science  of  Road  Making,  New  York, 
1894. 

Hooley,  E.  Purnell — Management  of  Highways,  London. 

Hubbard,  Prevost — Dust  Preventives  and  Road  Binders,  New 
York,  1910. 

Hulburt,  Archer  Butler — Historic  Highways  of  America,  16 
Vols.,  Cleveland,  O.,  1902. 

Jeffreys,    Rees — Dust  Problem  Statistics,   London,    1909. 

Jenks,  Jeremiah  W. — Road  Legislation  for  the  American  State, 
Baltimore,  Md.,  1889. 

Johnson,  J.  B. — Engineering  Contracts  and  Specifications,  New 
York,  1902. 

Judson,  William  Pierson — Road  Preservation  and  Dust  Pre- 
vention, New  York,  1908. 

Latham,  Frank — The  Construction  of  Roads,  London,  1903. 

Lovegrove,  E.  J. — Attrition  Tests  of  Road-Making  Stones,  Lon- 
don, 1906. 

Low,  Henry  and  Clark,  D.  K. — The  Construction  of  Roads  and 
Streets,  London,  1901. 

Preliminary  Report  of  Inland  Waterways  Commission,  U.  S. 
Senate  Document  325,  60th  Congress,  1st  Session. 

Richardson,  Clifford — The  Modern  Asphalt  Pavement,  New 
York,  1908. 

Gingwalt,  J.  L. — Developement  of  Transportation  Systems  in 
the  United  States,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1888. 

Ryves,  Reginald — The  King's  Highway,  London,   1908. 

Searight,  Thomas  B. — The  Old  Pike,  Uniontown,  Pa.,  1894. 

Tucker,  James  Irwin — Contracts  in  Engineering,  New  York, 
1910. 


A  NATIONAL  MANUAL  ON  HIGHWAYS.  31 


Aimales  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  Paris. 

Engineering  and  Contracting,  Chicago. 

Engineering  News,  New  York 

Engineering  Record,  New  York. 

Surveyor,  London. 

Zeitschrift   fur   Transportwesen   und   Strasseiibau,    Berlin. 

Street  Pavements:  Their  Selection,  Care,  Maintenance,  by 
George  W.  Tillson.  This  is  a  reprint  from  the  proceedings  of  the 
American  Highways  Association,  1912.  Valuable. 

National  Highways,  by  C.  H.  Davis,  C.  E.,  Washington,  D.  C., 
is  an  interesting  and  valuable  booklet  of  27  pages. 

FURTHER  INFORMATION.  The  author  of  Golden  Roads  may 
be  able  to  suggest  ways  and  means  of  obtaining  books,  circulars, 
and  general  information,  if  the  reader  finds  difficulty  in  getting 
what  he  requires. 

SPECIAL  SERVICE.  More  detailed  reports  from  the  un- 
abridged manuscripts  of  the  larger  Golden  Roads,  or  from  any  of 
the  works  in  the  author's  library  will  be  supplied  for  the  cost  of 
the  stenographic  fee,  plus  postage,  the  author's  desire  being  to 
make  it  as  easy  as  possible  for  co-workers  to  be  supplied  with 
ammunition.  Address  Leigh  H.  Irvine,  San  Luis  Obispo,  California. 

BY  RIGHT  OF  SWORD,  an  exhaustive  defense  of  the  death 
penalty  for  the  cold-blooded  murderer,  is  a  work  by  the  author  of 
GOLDEN  ROADS.  It  has  been  highly  praised  by  press,  pulpit, 
educators,  statesmen,  judges,  and  others.  It  won  several  battles 
in  deliberative  bodies  and  was  used  to  defeat  the  anti  capital-pun- 
ishment forces  at  the  New  York  State  Constitutional  Convention, 
1015,  and  before  the  California  Legislature,  same  year.  The  au« 
thor  appeared  in  joint  debate  before  the  Judiciary  Committee  of  the 
Assembly,  being  opposed  by  Rabbi  Nieto  and  Assemblyman  Harris. 
Their  measures  were  defeated.  The  volume  converted  one  of  the 
most  active  leaders  of  the  opposition  in  Kansas.  The  Baker  & 
Taylor  Co.,  354  Fourth  Ave.,  New  York,  are  trade  sales-agents,  as 
are  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago.  The  retail  price  of  the  volume, 
in  cloth  only,  is  $1.  The  author  will  prepay  postage  and  send  a 
copy  anywhere  on  receipt  of  $1,  or  will  send  elaborate  circulars 
concerning  the  work  free  of  cost. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
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.  PH.  JM*.  2t-  1908 


TU 


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